Theory of management free essay sample

Management theory is a set of ideas and rules intended to help supervisors/managers to know the goals of the organization, to understand what inspires people to work when achieving the goals of the organization and to plan work required to attain the goals of the organization in the most competent and effective way possible. HISTORICAL THEORIES OF MANAGEMENT Scientific Management Theory, Fredrick Taylor (1890-1940): Tasks were standardized as much as possible where workers were rewarded and punished. This worked well for organizations with assembly lines and other mechanistic, routinized activities. Bureaucratic Management Theory, Max Weber (1930-1950): Max Weber embellished the scientific management theory with his bureaucratic theory focusing on dividing organizations into hierarchies, establishing strong lines of authority and control. Human Relations Movement (1930-today): A major belief included that the organization would prosper if its workers prospered as well. Fig. 1 Fig. 1 above summarizes evolution of management theories over the years i. We will write a custom essay sample on Theory of management or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page e. Pre-Classical, Classical, Behavioral, Quantitative and Contemporary viewpoints. This article therefore assesses the Contemporary viewpoints. The dominant theories of organizations prior to the 1960s were: 1). Classical/Traditional School, who saw organizational design as a rational structure, or mechanisms which would be imposed upon people and 2). Human Relations, or Social Psychological School, who saw organizations primarily in terms of the needs of the individuals within them. The theorists of human relations set out to humanize the work place at the expense of studying the organization as a whole. They did not address themselves sufficiently to several major problems that can arise in practically every organization e. g.  dealing with tensions between the requirements for structure and the needs of people. Questions of conflict tended to be dealt with in terms of avoiding it by attention to motivation and leadership. A further difficulty in the human relations approach was its emphasis on the practical application of ideas rather than on the conceptual development of organizational theory. This suggests we need to look elsewhere for a fuller explanation of behavior in organizations hence the birth of the theorists who see organizations as complex social systems responsive to a number of inter-dependent and important variables like the Contemporary Theory. Contemporary approach to management focuses on the use of rigorous quantitative techniques to help managers make maximum use of organizational resources to produce goods and services. This school of thought or view point about management includes those major ideas about managing and organizations that have emerged since the 1950s. Some of the ideas, systems theory for example, are rooted in experiences gained during World War II. Contemporary viewpoints therefore consider the Systems Theory, Contingency Theory and Emerging Views. The systems theory: This approach is based on the notion that organizations can be visualized as systems of interrelated parts or subsystems that operate as a whole in pursuit of common goals. According to Mullins (2010), a systems approach is a management approach that attempts to reconcile the classical and human relations. Here, attention is focused on the total work of the organization and the interrelationships of structure and behavior and the range of variables within the organization. The organization is viewed within its total environment and emphasizes the importance of multiple channels in interaction. A system is a collection of part unified to accomplish an overall goal. If one part of the system is removed, the nature of the system is changed as well. A system can be looked at as having inputs, processes, outputs and outcomes. Systems share feedback among each of these four aspects of the systems. For an organization, inputs would include resources such as raw materials, money, technologies and people. These inputs go through a process where they’re planned, organized, motivated and controlled, ultimately to meet the organization’s goals. Outputs would be products or services to a market. Outcomes would be, e.g. , enhanced quality of life or productivity for customers/clients and productivity. Feedback would be information from human resources carrying out the process, customers/clients using the products, etc. Feedback also comes from the larger environment of the organization, e. g. , influences from government, society, economics, and technologies. Typical systems are the solar system, the human body, communication networks and social systems. Open systems are those which do interact with their environment, upon which they rely for obtaining essential inputs and for the discharge of their system outputs e.g. social systems i. e. organizations. Closed systems on the other hand are those which, for all practical purposes, are completely self-supporting and thus do not interact with their environment e. g. an astronaut’s life support pack. Closed systems are designed for efficiency whereas open systems on the other hand are designed for survival. The early classical theorists were expounding a closed systems approach while developments in human relations were biased towards open systems. The modern consensus appears to be that both types are necessary for the maintenance and growth of successful organizations. The effect of systems theory in management is that writers, educators, consultants, etc. are helping managers to look at the organization from a broader perspective. Systems theory has brought a new perspective for managers to interpret patterns and events in the workplace. They recognize the various parts of the organization, and, in particular, the interrelations of the parts, e. g., the  coordination of central administration with its programs, engineering with manufacturing, supervisors with workers, etc This interpretation has brought about a significant change (or paradigm shift) in the way management studies and approaches organizations. Key variables that are of greatest interest to systems approach to organizations are People (as individuals and in groups), Organization structure, Environment (external conditions affecting the organization) and Technology (Technical requirements of work) otherwise known as POET. Initially, the Tavistock researchers for example looked at the relationships between people and the technology and between structure and environment. The concept of socio-technical systems arose from the work of Scholars at the Tavistock Institute. Later Pugh and Colleagues have developed a more comprehensive and multi-dimensional approach, utilizing all of the above variables (POET). Contingency Theory: Basically, contingency theory asserts that when managers make a decision, they must take into account all aspects of the current situation and act on those aspects that are key to the situation at hand. This approach is in marked contrast to the earliest universal approach stemming from the classical management school which suggested that there was one, and only one, best decision for managers to make which applied in all cases and to all organization, big or little, for profit, or not-for-profit, etc. Basically, it’s the approach that it depends. For example, the continuing effort to identify the best leadership or management style might now conclude that the best style depends on the situation. The contingency approach applies particularly well in such areas as environmental factors, strategy, organizational design, technology, and leadership. For example if one is leading troops in the Persian Gulf, an autocratic style is probably best but a more participative and facilitative leadership style is probably best if one is leading a hospital or university. Therefore it can be concluded that the contingency approach is an extension of the systems approach in that it implies organizational variables (e. g. strategy, structure and systems) and its success or performance is dependent upon environmental influences (forces). Emerging views: This is a continuous process of experimentation and adaptation, aimed at matching an organization’s capabilities to the demands of a dynamic and uncertain environment and such change is typically achieved through many small to medium sized incremental changes. Over time these can lead to a major reconfiguration and transformation of an organization Change is a multi-level, cross-organization processes that unfolds in an interactive and disordered fashion over a period of years, and is comprised of a series of interlocking projects. The current concepts and practices shaping today’s management history and changing the way that managers do their jobs are summarized below: (i) Globalization: -organizational operations no longer stop at geographic borders. Managers in all types and sizes of organizations are faced with the opportunities and challenges of globalization. (ii) Entrepreneurship: -refers to the process whereby an individual or a group of individuals uses organized efforts and means to pursue opportunities to create value and grow by fulfilling wants and needs through innovation and uniqueness. Managing in an E-Business World: -when organizations do its work by using electronic (Internet-based) linkages with key constituencies in order to efficiently and effectively achieve its goals. (iv) Need for Innovation and Flexibility: -constant flow of new ideas is crucial for an organization to avoid obsolescence or failure and flexibility is valuable in a context where customer’s needs may change overnight, where new competitors come and go, and where employees and their skills are shifted as needed from project to project. Quality Management Systems: -Total quality management (TQM) is a philosophy of management that is driven by customer needs and expectations and focuses on continual improvement in work processes. TQM chief proponents W. Edwards Deming developed and presented his quality philosophy and theory which represents a counterpoint to earlier management theorists who believed that low costs were the only road to increased productivity. The objective of TQM is to create an organization committed to continuous improvement. Learning Organizations and Knowledge Management: -Managers now must deal with an environment that is continually changing. The successful organizations of the 21st century will be flexible, able to learn and respond quickly, and be led by managers who can effectively challenge conventional wisdom, manage the organization’s knowledge base, and make needed changes. (vii) Theory Z: William Ouchi’s: -This Theory Z combines positive aspects of American and Japanese management into a modified approach aimed at increasing managerial effectiveness while remaining compatible with the norms and values of society and culture. Whereas the classical approach may be criticized for almost viewing organizations without any regard for their people and the human relations approach emphasized people without organizations (and neither particularly considered organizations in turbulent environment), the systems approach takes holistic perspective, encouraging managers to view organizations both as a whole and as part of a larger environment (open systems). The approach considers the interdependency of organizations parts, changes in one part –technical or social, will affect the other. The systems approach and systems thinking have formed the backbone of organizational analysis and can be applied to organizational design problems, strategy, change management and information systems. Whilst the contingency approach is an extension of the systems approach. Therefore, there is no one best way to structure or manage organizations; rather it must be dependent upon the contingencies of the situation.

Ideals of Love in Platos Symposium

Ideals of Love in Platos Symposium As much as our society has become involved in the advancement of feminism and the equality of the sexes, there is one fact that neither gender can ignore; none can survive without the other. Love and the want of a soul mate keeps each member of man and womankind in the constant search of the perfect person with whom to become one. Yet if this bond is a necessity of the human race then why has the meaning, purpose and pursuit of it eluded us for so many generations. There has yet to be a one universal explanation of love and there has yet to be one who understands its powers fully. As we see from Plato's Symposium, even to the wisest of men, in a time when the search for knowledge was seen as the pathway to enlightenment, love was still a concept that was not understood and unknown. Though many of their guidelines and characteristics of love are wise, some may not apply to modern society. Platos Symposium serves as a pamphlet that depicts some of the guidelines of love as the philosophers of Plato's time saw them. The intervention of the Gods in the speeches of the philosophers can be interpreted to mean the different aspects of love and their affects on people. It seemed as though in each of the lectures given, Plato put a message into each one. Each man brought up valid guidelines for dealing with love and each should be concentrated on. The speeches started with Phaedrus, who began to state many of the powers of love. He spoke about the honor between one and their beloved and how it was a great virtue in a relationship. The point that Phaedrus made was that a man of any nature would rather suffer humiliation in front of a great mass of people or all of mankind itself than to suffer the loss of respect or the loss of dignity in front of their lover. This point is definitely true, yet Phaedrus failed to make a definite cause as to why this was prevalent. It may pertain ...

What is the significance of the dates 1453 and 1763 to the emergence Essay

What is the significance of the dates 1453 and 1763 to the emergence of modern Europe - Essay Example With the introduction of Gun powder, traditional protocols of one-on-one combats were confined to the past. This made the whole enterprise of war more mechanical than ever before. The demise of Constantinople and the simultaneous rise of the Ottoman Empire are also significant from a theological point of view. For the first time in European history, a Christian kingdom was overwhelmed by an Islamic one. The relevance of this event to the modern day Europe is quite obvious, as most scholars acknowledge â€Å"the clash of civilizations† today – a famous thesis of Professor Samuel Huntington. Hence, it is not an exaggeration to state that the reverberations of this clash of two radically different cultures are still felt in modern Europe. By 1453, the Byzantine kingdom was reduced to a small and weak entity that extended little beyond the city of Constantinople. But, in spite of their modest stature, the Byzantines antagonized most of their neighbours. To their disadvantage, â€Å"the Roman and Orthodox churches had mutually excommunicated one another in 1054, and although there had been a formal Bull of Union in 1439 there was still enmity between the two wings of the church. Constantines efforts to paint the plight of Constantinople as the plight of Christendom all but failed†1. As mentioned before, after 1453 Islam had entered the erstwhile Christianity dominated European kingdoms. If modern day Europe is seen as a culturally diverse continent, then the conditions for this outcome were set in the centuries following 1453 when the Ottoman Empire attained its peak. The flourishing of the Ottoman Empire was not just confined to military success. This period also saw the rise of Islamic art and architecture that would have a major influence in modern European art and architecture as well. Another legacy of the reign of the Sultans can be seen in the social and infrastructural organization of certain modern European cities. The

The Impact of Downsizing on Organizational Competitiveness & Assignment

The Impact of Downsizing on Organizational Competitiveness & Innovativeness - Assignment Example Such strategies will become their key success factors in the future. The competition is forcing organizations to change their forms and the fundamental practices of management which they follow (Bresnen and Fowler 1994). The competitive advantage durability depends on the value of the human resources working in the organization and the intellectual capital they imply to perform their work (Wilkinson 2005, Guthrie and Datta 2008). To have a strong competitive edge in the business market is extremely vital for the firm to succeed otherwise survival of organizations starts to become quite difficult with such extreme competition taking place vigorously. The impact of downsizing is playing a major role in causing a shift in the social, economic, and the competitive organizational structures (McKinley, Sanchez, and Schick 1995). It can be observed that downsizing can strongly impact the competitiveness of organizations. At times downsizing may cause the business to lose their valuable employees and during the downsizing phase, many of the employees that are being retained may become troubled over their sense of job security which in turn may affect their performance greatly. The main purpose of this research is to find out the impact of downsizing; in what ways are the strategies for competitiveness and innovation of an organization affected whence it decides to downsize. This will be achieved by investigating firms that have conducted downsizing. A deeper look will be taken at the aftermaths of downsizing which was faced by these organizations. 2. To find out whether innovative practices of organizations are successful when firms opt for the downsizing process; a basic question is how the innovation model of any firm changes due to downsizing.

Critically discuss the use of standard deviation as a risk indicator Essay - 1

Critically discuss the use of standard deviation as a risk indicator for investment purposes - Essay Example A greater standard deviation implies a greater volatility. More the volatility, more the risk. Generally, high risk is associated with high returns and high losses. Therefore, a fund with higher average returns and lower volatility is the most preferred option. However, such an ideal situation rarely materializes and the investors have to strike a balance between returns and risk due to volatility. Standard deviation acts as a useful tool in achieving this balance. Standard deviation is not a failsafe method for risk measurement. Standard deviation has an inherent limitation that it is based on analysis of past data. That is why it is also known as historical volatility. The allocation of assets in a stock or fund in the past may be entirely different from the situation today. Therefore, past performance would not be a suitable indicator of future performance. In this case several external factors would have to be considered and standard deviation may fail to give desired results. Standard deviation does not give information about the current debt structure of the company. It does not take into account the recent changes. For example, a certain company may have an average debt of 30% of the total capital structure over the past 20 years but suddenly over the past year the company has taken a large amount of debt which has take it to 60%. This would have an impact on the financial condition of the company and stockholders are bound to suffer. However, a standard deviation would still show a decent amount of volatility in accordance with previous debt structure. This leads us to the interpretation that standard deviation alone should never be used as a risk indicator. Many analysts believe that standard deviation is a measure of volatility and not of risk. This has to do with the fact that risk means different things for different people. For some investors, risk implies losing all of their investment, for others a negative return

The winners and losers of the globalisation process

The winners and losers of the globalisation process There are both winners and losers associated with globalisation, however what exactly is globalisation and how can it be defined? Daniels et al. Defines the term globalisation as follows: A contested term relating to the transformation of spatial relations that involves a change in the relationship between space, economy and society.  [1]  There are a few key dimensions connected to globalisation, these are economical, political, social, cultural and environmental. This paper will argue that there are some positives linked to globalisation, however many people are still worse off and suffer as a result of this phenomenon. There are some general winners as a result of globalisation: the highly skilled and educated, large firms, global markets, men, or any people with assets. Then there are the losers of globalisation: the workers, women and children, local communities, the uneducated, people without skills, the environment and small firms. For globalisation to work inequality must be decreased in order to close the gap between the rich and poor countries. Transnational and Multinational Corporations are those corporations which have headquarters in a certain country (mainly in a global city) and operate in several other countries around the world. They have been the central players in the evolution of globalisation since the Second World War. These have continued to become some of the most powerful economic and political entities in the world today. The corporations can influence globalisation greatly and bring wealth to developed countries. Many of the larger Transnational Corporations (TNCs) have a higher turnover than the majority of the worlds countries. For example, the combined revenues of General Motors and Ford alone, the two largest automobile corporations in the world, exceed the combined Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for all of sub-Saharan Africa.  [2]   Economic globalisation  refers to increasing economic interdependence of national economies across the world through a rapid increase in cross border movement of goods, service, technology and capital.  [3]  Capitalism drives globalisation in this present era and will continue to do so with the markets opening up and becoming neo-liberal. Whilst economic globalisation has been occurring over several thousands of years, recently it has expanded rapidly with the increasing improvements in technology, transportation and free trade. This recent growth has occurred mainly because of developed countries integrating with less developed countries, by means of foreign direct investment (FDI), the reduction of  trade barriers and the modernisation of these developing cultures. Countries involved in trade liberalisation benefit from an increase in living standards, increased incomes, and higher rates of economic growth. For economies to grow, TNCs need to generate profit and expand glob ally. They achieve this by moving their production line to less developed countries in order to decrease production costs and increase profit. The winners of this process are the major corporations (Nike, Gap, Tommy Hilfiger, etc.) whose products are made at a minimal cost, thus generating increased amounts of profit allowing them to globalise their business and become wealthier. TNCs have been heavily criticised, however they have invested in developing countries and by doing this, have managed to raise the living standards. Despite the western view that sweatshops are unethical, the labourers who work in them are often benefiting greatly. Many economists whose studies are directly related to sweatshops find that after controlling for other factors, multinational firms pay higher wages than domestic firms in Third World countries.  [4]  Many citizens in developing countries are unqualified or uneducated, thus making it extremely difficult for them to find employment by being unqualified. Feenstra and Hanson (1997) find that multinational firms improve the lives of workers by increasing the demand for labour.  [5]  This indicates that unqualified citizens still have a chance of employment and receiving an above average income. The apparel industry has drawn most attention in the press for its use of sweatshop labour. Evidently, the apparel wages are l ow by Western country standards however, these wages compare favourably with the average standard of living within these countries. For example, in Honduras, the site of the famous Kathy Lee Gifford sweatshop scandal, the average apparel worker earns, $13.10 per day, yet 44% of the countrys population lives on less than $2 per day.  [6]  Evidently, sweatshops do play a major role in developing countries, however there still are some negatives surrounding them. The negative associations with globalisation cannot be overlooked. The losers of this process are the workers who work increased hours, earn little income, along with poor living and working standards. Even though sweatshops produce a reasonable, above average income for its workers, they usually work in dirty polluted factories which may have a negative effect on the worker and may decrease their life span. For example, Tommy Hilfiger a world renowned brand has set up sweatshops in developing countries, where products are made at a minimal cost and sold in developed countries at a high cost, producing major profits which return to the specific TNC headquarters, thus the developing countries economy does not benefit greatly. This in turn leads to an increase in inequality between the rich and the poor. As a result of sweatshops, citizens in the developing world may suffer as well. When these major corporations move their production line to reduce costs they leave several thousands of local citizens unemployed, which may lead to them relying on welfare. They may also substitute humans with labour saving technologies which will also increase unemployment levels. This can continue to lead to issues such as a loss of tax revenue which may be detrimental to the home country and halt them from moving forward. An additional loser in this process can be the consumer who purchases these products which can be described as being highly overpriced. Another significant and often overlooked loser from economic globalisation is the environment. Major corporations decreases in environmental integrity as polluting corporations take advantage of weak regulatory rules in developing countries. For example, human systems are depleting resources and degrading the environment at unprecedented rates, such as mining companies clearing land for production causing deforestation and pollution. There are many more examples of environmental degradation such as urbanization of productive land; water logging and salinization of soil; soil erosion; deforestation; ground water depletion; ozone depletion; pollution; and climate change to name a few. These are all issues which are currently being seen through media sources. Such as the BP oil spill which has been graded the biggest environmental disaster in the US history, The oil rig, about 40 miles (64km) off the coast of Louisiana, sank two days later, gushing an estimated 12,000 to 19,000 barrels of crude oil a day into the Gulf of Mexico.  [7]  This appears to be a prime example of environmental degradation. This disaster has continuing effects on the environment and economy such as killing wildlife and habitat, and effecting tourism on this part of the coast. Ms Wickman, owner of the Treasure Trove gift shop that occupies an 18th century church, one of Alabamas oldest buildings, estimates that her business has dropped by half since news of the April 20 explosion that destroyed an oil rig under contract with BP.  [8]  Due to the interconnectedness of globalisation when this disaster occurred all the oil prices around the world fluctuated and were unstable at the time. Some countries may suffer from the resource curse. A prime example of the resource curse is Nigeria, a country rich in land, but poor in population. Despite its large earning from oil, 70% of its estimated 140 million people live below the poverty line.  [9]  About 95 percent of Nigerias revenue is generated by oil and gas, resulting in billions of  dollars  in state funds every year, though much of the country remains impoverished and underdeveloped this is mainly due to a high level of corruption in its government.  [10]  These can lead to much greater issues within developing countries such as an increase in the chances of civil war within developing countries and open war between developing countries as they fight for resources. In conclusion, there are evidently positive impacts which have occurred as a part of the globalisation phenomenon. It has contributed to increased job opportunities for uneducated or unqualified citizens, has increased economic growth for developed countries through transnational and multinational corporations, and increased living standards due to trade liberalisation. Even though there are some negatives associated with globalisation such as increasing the gap between the rich and poor, exploiting labourers, along with having environmental impacts, globalisation has still continued to have many great benefits on the world. It is unreasonable to predict that globalisation will encourage equality around the world; there will always be winners and losers, regardless.

Where Have You Gone, Joshua Chamberlain? :: Free Essays Online

Where Have You Gone, Joshua Chamberlain? To some, it may be considered a minor inconvenience. To others, a drawn-out ordeal with annoying aspects, but one they realize will be completed shortly. Yet to some, to a select, elite group of young, paranoid, and, let’s face it, broke, lot of people known as college students, it’s a travesty. An impossibility. An object traveling deep into the Void, never to be seen again. This trip into the parallel universe to which some objects traverse without return is known as: The Loss of a Package Sent by your Parents. It wasn’t a package of cookies -- oh no, it couldn’t be something sweet, simple, and purely meant as a tasty surprise. Nor was it a warm, knit blanket, something to keep me toasty warm during long, cold nights of studying in my fairly-heated dorm room. Mail accidentally sent to my home address instead of my brand-new, thoroughly unfamiliar college address it was not. It was a package of books, hand-picked by my dad, for my first college presentation, discussing the life of a Civil War general, Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain. My father is somewhat of a self-taught expert on the subject. A man who has been that annoying voice in the back of a group tour, constantly asking questions and making comments (this â€Å"he-usually-makes-fun-of-this-person† day took place at the Joshua Chamberlain Museum in Brunswick, Maine). A man who has scoured every remote bookstore location in Maine, searching, praying, for another addition to his collection of scores of books concerning the late, great Joshua Chamberlain and the 20th Maine. This past summer, he hit the jackpot. While walking in Freeport, Maine, land of the wondrous L.L. Bean store, my father stumbled upon a small shanty of a store with a meager painted sign which read: â€Å"BOOKS: 20TH MAINE.† With bated breath, my dad entered the store. And there, among rows of Civil War memorabilia, regiment flags and extremely overpriced bronze replicas of battles such as Little Round Top, Dan Beaulieu found heaven. To this day, I wonder if he breathed once in that store, for fear that a puff of air might blow away his Holy Grail of bookstores. After a very exciting hour of buying T-shirts with inspiring quotes